The North American Grid

This week, we will be examining how The Lincoln Memorial (in the National Mall, Washington DC) acts as an expression of power, and then constructs a concept of American identity. Margaret Farrar's essay will act as our starting point.

The National Mall
Source - nationalgeographic.com

The Lincoln Memorial was dedicated in 1922 as one of many monuments built in honour of the 16th president. A 12 foot tall statue of President Lincoln sits inside a building in the form of a Greek doric temple- also inside are inscriptions of 2 of the president's speeches and a series of mural paintings.

Lincoln Memorial has been the location of famous speeches and events, including Martin Luther King's  famous"I Have a Dream" speech.

Martin Luther King Jr at the Lincoln Memorial
Source - npr.org 

The sheer size of the Lincoln Memorial conveys a message of power and grandeur. Emulating the style of a great empire (the Greeks) suggests that America has power and influence in the modern world. The statue of President Lincoln depicts an ideal form, in an attempt to convey the courage and perfection of the of the man who lead America through a civil war.

Lincoln Memorial
Source - wikimedia.org

Farrar indicates that as time passes, the world fundamentally changes around us. Generations pass, and the culture changes. As a result of this phenomenon, the story of Lincoln does not hold the same meaning in our modern world. Instead, the Lincoln Memorial stands as a symbol of courage, morality, democracy, freedom and revolution- all of which are central to American identity. Lincoln's stern face stares forward to the Washington Monument across the park, reminding America that freedom comes at a very high cost.

Lincoln's Stern Face
Source - wikimedia.org

In conclusion, we can see how theories of power and space have affected architecture throughout the ages, beginning in prehistory and carrying through to contemporary times. Space has the power to communicate a society's ideals while influencing the behaviour of the people within. Thank you for reading my blog!

Creating the Hispanic American City: Urban Policy

The Laws of the Indies were established by the Spanish Crown and completed by Phillip II in 1573. Consisting of 146 laws in total, the Laws of the Indies were created for the American and Philippine conquests of the Crown, and were established to regulate social, political, and economic life in these areas. 

The laws begin by addressing contact with indigenous people of the areas (an issue that arose following the voyage of Christopher Columbus). Focus is placed on the welfare of indigenous people emphasizing "peacemaking" between settlers and natives. Interestingly, although some of these laws were established prior to the conquering of previously mentioned Tenochtitlan, they were not followed (the Aztecs were nearly wiped out entirely when the Spanish took Tenochtitlan to create Mexico City). 

The Laws of the Indies also place focus on the concept of urban planning, supporting the grid design for cities (this pattern is obvious in the earlier Santa Fe de Granada). This pattern emphasized a sense of centralized control where the most important people and buildings could be found in central locations. As a result of this, churches were often found in central locations as they represented the religion at the heart of the Spanish Empire.  

Also noteworthy is the apparent effort to create "ideal cities"- the laws go so far as to specify preferred locations (not vulnerable to pirates), accessibility, elevation, and climate. 

The Laws of the Indies served as an outline for creating settlements in newly discovered land, addressing all practical concerns in discovering, settling, and expanding new Spanish territory. 

From Medieval to Renaissance Urbanism in Granada Spain

In the late 1400’s, the city of Granada underwent dramatic changes as a result of conquest. Previously an Islamic city, it was conquered by Catholic monarchs. True to common urban organization of the time, Granada was highly organic in its arrangement. Streets wind through the city in a fashion similar to Ancient Rome. Following Spanish conquest, the city witnessed a shift in artistic and architectural styles reflecting the city’s new religious and political ideals. Under Charles V, mosques were replaced with other grand buildings to prove the power of the Spanish and Granada’s dedication to Catholicism.

Granada
Source: Google Maps

Santa Fe De Granada was built at the time of the conquest for the sole purpose of conquering. Santa Fe, similar to Granada, places the focus on churches and the Catholic religion. Unlike Granada, Santa Fe was built as a grid planned city, demonstrating the power and authority of the Spanish. Santa Fe De Granada adopted a semi-gothic style of architecture, injecting small alterations to create a visual aesthetic unique to Spain.

Santa Fe De Granada
Source: Google Maps

The continuing expansion of and modification to each city created a monarchical presence, showing how religious and political ideals can be reflected in a city’s architecture.

Love Granada. “Granada History.” Accessed March 20, 2013. http://www.lovegranada.com/granada/history/

Roth, Leland M. Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History, and Meaning. Colorado: Westview Press, 2007.

Turismo De Granada. “Santa Fe.” Accessed March 20, 2013. http://www.turgranada.es/municipios/municipio.php?id_municipio=153&id_idioma=2

Recreating the Tenochtitlan and its Sacred Precinct

The theme of "colonialism" is a common one in the study of ancient architecture. This week we will be discussing Tenochtitlan, the centre of the Aztec world. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to understand what the ancient capital may have been like, because it is buried underneath modern day Mexico City. Fortunately, it is still possible to examine some of the Aztec foundations onto which the Spanish built their city-- this can teach us much about Aztec architectural practices. 

Surrounded by the waters of Texcoco, Tenochtitlan was the Aztec capital accessible only by causeways. The city centre was compressed into the heart of the complex, featuring the markets, pyramids, temples, and royal housing. Urban downtown was surrounded by grid planned, highly organized city living quarters. 

Artist's Depiction of Tenochtitlan
Source - http://mrmoyer.pbworks.com/w/page/2
1727065/Geography%20Aztec

Wars carried on between the Spanish and the Aztecs. Despite the Aztec population outnumbering the visiting Spanish,  the Aztecs were eventually defeated (most likely due to the highly organized Spanish military formations, protective armour, and their focus on the success of the group as opposed to the Aztec focus on individual glory). The Spanish captured Tenochtitlan in the 16th century.  Impressed by the city's well organized grid plan and grand temples, the invaders can be quoted as wondering whether "it was only a dream". 

Aztec Ruins in Mexico City
Source - http://www.cromwell-intl.com/travel/m
exico/mexico-city-tepoztlan.html

The Spanish were so impressed by Tenochtitlan that they proceeded to build their empire on top of the Aztec city, using it as a guideline. For example, the Spanish Metropolitan Cathedral can be found on top of what was once the Aztec's Main Dual Pyramid Temple. 

Metropolitan Cathedral, Mexico City
Source - http://www.delange.org/MetC
ath/MetCath.htm

Building on top of the Aztec capital is the ultimate display of power over the Aztec people. The Spanish recognized a means of using Tenochtitlan for their own benefit. Eventually, the surrounding waters of Texcoco were drained to allow for even further expansion of Mexico City. Today, the area is hardly recognizable as the once proud Tenochtitlan; the Spanish used the Aztec city for their own development. 

Lonely Planet. “Introducing Mexico City.” Accessed March 6, 2013. http://www.lonelyplanet.com/mexico/mexico-city

Roth, Leland M. Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History, and Meaning. Colorado: Westview Press, 2007.

Tenochtitlan Facts. “About Tenochtitlan.” Accessed March 5, 2013. http://www.tenochtitlanfacts.com

Comparing the Art of Tula and Chichen Itza

What can be referred to as the “Toltec-Maya connection” is a very unique occurrence in Mesoamerica. Chichen Itza and Tula share many similarities in architecture and symbolism found on both sites: specifically, the Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza and Pyramid B at Tula. This week, we will be “travelling” to both sites to examine their similarities and differences and consider the relevancy of a Toltec occupation at Chichen Itza.

Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza
Source - http://archaeology.about.com/od/archaeologic
7/ig/Chichen-Itza/Temple-of-the-Warriors.htm

Similar to Pyramid B at Tula, The Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza displays similar relief carvings of both deities and Toltec warriors. Both sites also boast carvings of ballplayers, jaguars, and eagles in a recognizably Toltec motif. Most interestingly, atop the Temple of the Warriors sits a Chac-Mool statue surrounded by Serpent Columns reminiscent of the Feathered Serpent deity. While a Chac-Mool statue was first found at Tula, the numerous depictions of Quetzalcoatl are even more unusual. While the Maya were known to have worshipped the Feathered Serpent, it was far more common within Toltec belief.

Pyramid B at Tula
Source - http://backpackingdave.com/p
hotogallery_mexico2009.html

While exceptionally similar, the Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza does differ from Pyramid B at Tula. The most obvious difference between the two sites is size; Pyramid B at Tula was constructed on a dramatically smaller scale. Although much of the symbolism is shared in various aspects of both sites, it can be displayed differently. For example, Chac-Mool statues were found at Tula (7 to be exact) however they sat around the base of the pyramid and not directly on top (although the serpent columns do sit on top of Pyramid B in a similar fashion to Chichen Itza).  

Chac-Mool Statue
Source - http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/chac%20mool

The cause of similarities between the two sites cannot be known for certain. It may be due to migration, conquest, or any other unknown factor. One notable relationship between the two sites is religion (considering the depictions of Quetzalcoatl). It is possible that the Toltec Empire conquered the Mayans and influenced their society from architecture to belief systems. Through further study of both Pyramid B and The Temple of the Warriors it may be possible to uncover more about how the Toltec and Mayan empires intermingled and developed together.

Ancient Wisdom. “Tula.” Accessed February 28, 2013. http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/mexicotula.htm

Chichen Itza. “Temple of the Warriors.” Accessed March 1, 2013. http://www.chichenitza.com/listingview.php?listingID=16

Roth, Leland M. Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History, and Meaning. Colorado: Westview Press, 2007.

UNESCO. “Pre-Hispanic City of Chichen-Itza.” Accessed March 2, 2013. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/483

Exploring Teotihuacan

This week (with the help of Google Maps), we will be journeying to Teotihuacan to explore its pyramids—the Pyramids of the Moon and the Sun. Little is definitively known about Teotihuacan’s past. However, as we have seen in previous posts, it is possible to speculate based on evidence and what is known about other architectural sites and similar cultures. 

Teotihuacan
Source: https://maps.google.ca

The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest building in Teotihuacan and the third largest pyramid in the world. Located on the Avenue of the Dead between the Pyramid of the Moon and Ciudadela, it sits in the middle of Teotihuacan. Unfortunately, some features of the pyramid have not survived to the present day. An altar used to sit on top—this suggests that the Pyramid of the Sun may have venerated a deity, however without the altar (or the illustrations that used to adorn the entire pyramid) there is no way to know which deity (if any at all) the pyramid was built for. The pyramid of the Sun is oriented in a way that allows some astrological events to be visible from the pyramid; specifically, events that would be particularly important to agricultural practices and belief systems of the time. Upon recent excavation, chambers underneath the Pyramid of the Sun have also been found. It is possible that there may have been a tomb within these chambers however this cannot be known for certain.

Pyramid of the Sun
Source:  http://fineartamerica.com/featured/pyrami
d-of-the-sun--teotihuacan-juergen-weiss.html

The Pyramid of the Moon is the second largest building in Teotihuacan. The pyramid was built in several “renovation” stages—at least 6, each stage building upon the original structure. It is thought that the pyramid was at one time mounted with a stone figure of the Great Goddess. Two tombs have been found within the pyramid, one containing four people (and religious offerings) and one created for the Great Goddess (containing sacrifices including a man, puma, and a serpent). Each of these tombs can be linked to a different era and stage of renovation, the tomb of the Goddess pre-dating the later dedication. The Pyramid of the Moon is unique in that it mimics the contours of Cerro Gordo (a nearby mountain).

Pyramid of the Moon
Source: http://topworldtourism.com/201
2/10/teotihuacan-mexico/

The Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon have much in common and can provide us with clues as to their purpose and place in life at Teotihuacan. The sheer size of the Pyramids as well as their location in the complex indicates their importance. As described above, both could have had religious functions. The pyramid of the Moon was used as a tomb; it is possible that the Pyramid of the Sun was used as a tomb as well based on the network of chambers found beneath. The Pyramid of the Moon was built to mirror the natural form of Cerro Gordo; even more impressively, the Pyramid of the Sun was built with an awareness of astrological patterns and events. Though many things are uncertain, both pyramids definitively demonstrate that the people of Teotihuacan were exceptionally connected to their environment.

Live Science. “Teotihuacan: Ancient City of Pyramids.” Accessed February 4, 2013. http://www.livescience.com/22545-teotihuacan.html

The Metropolitan Museum of Art. “Teotihuacan.” Accessed February 4, 2013. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/teot/hd_teot.htm

UNESCO. “Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan.” Accessed February 4, 2013. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/414

Roth, Leland M. Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History, and Meaning. Colorado: Westview Press, 2007.